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Maitreyee Nanda
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A study of Mangrove forests in Orissa that aims at providing the policy planners, implementation agencies, communities and other stakeholders adequate analysis and insight into devising and implementing a self sustaining livelihood system on the ground, which can ensure the preservation of the mangrove.
Introduction
The super cyclone of 1999 ravaged coastal Orissa. However, it was an eye-opener too. It revealed that only those villages were saved which had mangrove forests acting as a buffer for them from the high velocity wind and tidal surges. Mangroves proved to be a lifesaver for people living in the area. These findings brought a group of scientists, social-sector experts and volunteers together under the aiegies of VASTAVA (an NGO), for an in-depth analysis of the unique eco-system and its dynamic interaction with a large number of people who have settled in the villages in and around the mangrove area, as part of a UNDP sponsored project, Sustainable Livelihood for People Living in and Around Mangrove Forest in Bhitarkanika.
Mangroves and coastal eco-systems
Mangroves constitute a unique tropical ecosystem occurring most extensively along the protected coastal shores with muddy to sandy bottoms, which is alternately covered and uncovered by tidal fluxes. In general, geography, coastal topography (including geomorphology), and tidal regime determine the presence or absence and extent of the mangroves. Structure, physical properties and chemical composition, salinity, acidity of the soil and sediments, the nature of the substratum as well as the climate determine the development, growth and productivity of the mangrove ecosystem which is complex, dynamic and highly fragile. It serves to maintain coastal stability, fish breeding and nursery grounds, avifauna habitat, silt trap, water quality maintenance and also contributes to the biological productivity by recycling nutrients from leaf decomposition. In spite of the demanding environment, mangrove ecosystems are home to a wide range of plant and animal biological diversity.
Mangroves in coastal Orissa
Recent surveys estimate the mangrove cover in India to be about 3150 sq km. About 80 per cent of this is along the east coast with major concentration in Orissa. In Orissa, the mangroves extend from Balasore coast to Puri coast over an area of 211 sq km. Around Dhamra mouth, mangroves exist in very dense patches in Bhitarkanika, our project area.
Bhitarkanika is a unique habitat with lush green mangrove forest on the sides of creeks and tidal mud flats located in Kendrapada district of Orissa. The mangrove forest in the deltaic region of the rivers of Brahmani, Baitarani-Dhamra deltaic is continuous and comprises of a single compact patch of estuarine forest in Orissa. This is the second- largest Mangrove ecosystem with diverse flora and fauna intricately linked with each other after the Sunderbans.
The villages inside Bhitarkanika Sanctuary showed unprecedented increase between 1951 and 1961. Between 1961 and 1981, 60 new illegal villages sprang up in Bhitarkanika. However, the Bhitarkanika sanctuary (declared in 1975) area comprises of a much larger area of 672 square kilometers. There are as many as 410 villages located within the sanctuary having a population of approximately 0.25 million comprising of six Gram Panchayats. Infact, there are four Gram Panchayats having a population of approximately 80,000 or so which surrounds the national park on three sides, The pressure on the park as well as the sanctuary emanates largely from these population. A large chunk of mangroves were cleared and converted into paddy fields to support the migrant population especially from Bangladesh.
Mangrove as livelihood support system
Mangroves are home to and provide livelihoods to millions of people. Many see in mangroves not much more than timber, charcoal and woodchips, despite the many other benefits that could potentially accrue.
Mangrove products: A lot of organisms depend on the mangrove for their livelihood needs. They are, for example, very important as nurseries for the marine life. Fish and other animals are often found as inhabitants of the underwater prop root complex and tidal channels. Also the terrestrial organisms and birds utilise the forest floor, the root complex and the canopy. The forest can produce a lot of things that humans can use in different ways. The bark is used as a source of tannins and dyes. The wood can be used in special ways because it is water-resistant and is often used for houses, boats, furniture and pilings. Dense black mangrove, that is a special type of mangrove tree, is used in charcoal production. The plants produce fruits that can be eaten. Leaves are used as a source of tea, medicine and livestock food. Dry leaves and branches are used as firewood. They can also be dried and used as tobacco. Flowers are used in the honey industry.
Source of seafood: In India, about 60 per cent of all commercial fish species are associated with the mangroves. In the mangroves, fish abundance is much higher than other coastal habitats. The reasons for this are food abundance, shelter from predation (cause of the structural complexity resulting from mangrove roots) and intertidal habitats.
Mangroves are also the habitats for molluscs of different kinds, like oysters. Oysters live in the surroundings of the tree roots and lower parts of the trunks. Many kinds of molluscs are collected for local consumption and are therefore of high value for the local population. Mangroves perform some functions that are important for coral reefs. Trapping of particulate matter and assimilation of nutrients in river runoff is important for coral reefs. This is because corals are sensitive to an excess of particles and nutrients, which would be the case if the mangrove were not there. The case is such that nutrients are exported from the mangroves to the coral reefs but not so much as the mangrove assimilates from terrestrial systems.
Livelihood system in Bhitarkanika
There are about 150 houses in this village. Most of these houses are made up of earthen walls with thatched roofs. Normally, these are two room houses but households with a reasonable income and with more family members have houses with 3-4 rooms. About 40 per cent of the population has got some land of their own. Rest of the people resort to share cropping or work on daily wages. The productivity of the land however is very low due to soil salinity. The agriculture in these saline lands is primarily rainfed and therefore single-crop. While canal irrigation is not much of a use due to brackish water, the underground fresh water has not yet been tapped for irrigation purposes.
In Bhitarkanika, over 90 per cent of households are partly or fully dependent on fishing for their livelihood. However, fish productivity has declined dramatically in recent years due to the increased number of fishers, the loss of mangrove areas to shrimp farms and water pollution from these farms. About 90 per cent of the households involved in fishing claim that it is harder to fish now as compared to five years ago. In terms of the total value of catch, shrimps are one of the most important resources for these coastal fisheries, which are often associated with the mangrove. Ponds are sometimes prepared on land in the mangrove forest, where they cultivate fish and shrimps. Shrimp aquaculture production is heavily dependent on surrounding mangroves for provision of seed, food, clean water, etc. When shrimp farms are made, they can often be built on too large an area, which means that not much mangrove is left in the surroundings. This can lead to a collapse of the shrimp farm because of a higher concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus than what is conducive for shrimp farming. More than half the population in Bhitarkanika depends on the network of creeks spread inside the sanctuary, besides fishing in the adjoining rivers of Brahmani, Baitarani, Mahanadi, Dhamra, Devi and Patsola high seas. They use locally made boats called dingi for spreading their nets. But quality nets are being introduced gradually.
In narrow creeks, when the tides start receding the nets are spread to get the catch whereas in wider creeks like Khola, Dangamala and Gupti the fishermen use handnets and try to catch whatever they can. However, in Patasala river leading to Gahirmatha beach, bigger nets are put in place using buoys thus obstructing the route of migratory fishes, brakish waterturtles and crocodiles. In Bhitarkanika, honeybees are abundant during the flowering season. The quality of honey found in the mangroves is different in different seasons. Every year during February-May, 3000-5000 kg of honey is produced in Bhitarkanika area. A local tribe called Daleis, who live in the area specialise as honey collectors. Only the males from the community go to the forest for honey collection. Since honey collection is essentially a seasonal work, the Daleis do not depend entirely on honey collection for their livelihood. They also work as labourers with the forest departments in agricultural activities, fishing, etc.
The Daleis are professionals and normally follow the bees to know the direction and location of honey hives. On an average they collect about 5kg of honey per day per person, which is a rich harvest by local standards. The Daleis are required to collect honey on behalf of the Forest Department or have to sell the honey to the Forest Department after collection. They earn Rs. 25 per kg but when the honey is sold in the outside market illegally, they earn Rs. 50 per kg. Hence, there is a temptation to sell the harvest clandestinely. Good quality honey is mainly collected in flowering season.
Pressures on the mangrove eco-system
Dire poverty forces the people of Bhitarkanika village to frequent the forest in search of livelihood. Some of them risk-facing cyclones for fishing in the open sea while others enter the forest to collect honey, fuel wood and other minor forest produce. The vulnerable mangrove eco-system in Bhitarkanika is under severe stress due to such interference. Ecological awareness is sadly lacking among villagers, 70 per cent of whom are illiterate.
Rapid increase in population in the recent times has only increased the pressure on the mangrove resources in Bhitarkanika. In the late 1960s, the complex pressures resulting from population growth, urban expansion and coastal economic development brought about heavy exploitation and destruction of mangrove resources. In the Bhitarkanika mangrove, detrimental activities included poorly executed illegal logging operations, road construction, and conversion of mangrove forests into shrimp farms, fishponds, and agricultural operations. The over-exploitation of mangrove resources, without any concern for their maintenance, reflects the outmoded view that mangroves are an inexhaustible resource.
Sustainable livelihood support system
In order to establish a sustainable livelihood system for the people in and around Bhitarkanika, it is important to preserve and manage the available resources on which there would be a permanent dependency. Another way of generating sustainable livelihoods is by converting some areas to other resource generators. As the mangrove area is losing ground to fishponds, shrimp farms, and other uses, it is imperative that the carrying capacity of the mangrove area should be determined before converting it to other resource development projects. In the areas around the national park in Bhitarkanika, more than 450 shrimp farms called gheries have come up. Since these activities form a part of the livelihood of the local people at present, the socio-economic aspects of human activities in mangrove areas should be taken into account. In general, the mangrove resources are owned and managed by the state, even though it is always considered that the local people have an interest in this property, since mangrove dwellers partly or fully depend on mangrove resources for their livelihood. The decision to give ownership of concessions to a few entrepreneurs mostly from the outside would eventually cause great hardship for mangrove dwellers, most of them constituting poor households. Therefore, a balanced relationship between fishery and forest production in mangrove areas is necessary in order to benefit the largest number of people. It is essential that we concentrate our political will and aim our highest policies at sustained yield from the mangrove resources, while moving towards greater equity and a more even distribution of the benefits from these resources among rural people.
Outline for a sustainable livelihood support system
Traditional forest goods and services timber, fuel, food, and medicine continue to support rural populations especially within the sanctuary area. Population increase is the primary driving forces behind the conversion of forests to agricultural land for both food and cash crops. The challenge is to balance local peoples subsistence needs with the pressures and interests of national, regional and coastal economic development and income opportunities. However, managing forests in a sustainable fashion can benefit all stakeholders, now as well as in the future. An important resource could be the use of mangroves in charcoal production, which could be a vital cottage industry and could be undertaken by small-scale producers. Charcoal has remained an important fuel source inspite of the increasing use of LPG cylinders. In the remote areas, the supply of LPG gas is very rare. Therefore people prefer to use the charcoal as their fuel. Charcoal is considered to be more efficient for longer cooking periods.
The mangrove resource in Bhitarkanika cannot, as currently managed, adequately support the current population in the area. Returns from fishing are low and no viable alternative livelihoods have been identified. Faced with low living standards, people appear to be making shortsighted production decisions, which are not in the interest of long-term management. This is despite the fact that most villagers realise that activities, which destroy the mangroves, will adversely affect their livelihood sooner or later. Furthermore, there seem to be barriers to mobility that prevent people from migrating after their living standards fall. These include lack of money to move (high level of rural indebtness), insecurity in making the move, and lack of a place to go. The important stakeholders in this case are the local community of Bhitarkanika and the Forest Department. It is necessary to encourage a degree of self management and capacity building amongst the local people to earn a sustainable livelihood. The ban on collection of minor forest produce in the core area of the National Park has ironically increased clandestine exploitation of the forests in an unregulated manner.
The main stakeholders, the community in Bhitarkanika, should accept their responsibility towards the preservation of the mangroves. A massive effort at education, awareness generation and capacity building among the local community is therefore a compelling
imperative. Some of initial successes of pilot projects would encourage more precipitating efforts in the mangrove areas of the Bhitarkanika forest, which could be replicated. In the face of a rapidly deteriorating coastal environment, especially due to mangrove destruction, a number of alternative economic activities should be considered simultaneously. These could include small-scale enterprises, creation of formal employment, agriculture and horticulture production activities, introduction of saline resistant crops, migration to other economically favourable areas along the coast and investing in tourism activities.
Some important suggestions that have emerged from this study, which could form the basis for sustainable livelihood system for the mangroves at Bhitarkanika, are advocacy of multiple-use-management of the mangrove system, replantation of mangrove species, etc. Anthropogenic pressures, particularly exploiting mangroves for firewood and construction material, need to be controlled because these activities are the primary cause of mangrove destruction, which has cascading effects. Joint forest management and ensuring access of local community to minor forest produce should be considered seriously by the policy planners in the government. As mentioned earlier, education and training for public appreciation of the mangrove system must be increased, and awareness and consciousness of the importance of the mangrove ecosystem must be established among decision makers.
The overall conclusion of this study is that given the complexity of the fragile mangrove system and the linkages between its components, a comprehensive integrated land-use management strategy for the mangrove areas needs to be developed which safeguards the important ecological functions of the mangroves; allows sustainable traditional productive uses of the mangrove by local communities and supports conservative livelihood practices in designated areas. Information, Education and Communication will form an integral part of this strategy. The development of an experimental management plan for the mangrove should be tried out on a pilot basis. This plan will attempt to respect existing popular uses and attitudes, while fully involving users in the decisionmaking process.
The findings of the study aim at providing the policy planners, implementation agencies, communities and other stakeholders adequate analysis and insight into devising and implementing a self-sustaining livelihood system on the ground, which can ensure the preservation of the mangrove. This exercise would also benefit similar endeavours elsewhere that hope to preserve this unique eco-system of our planet for posterity.
Author: Maitreyee Nanda is a Scientist with Defence Research and Development Organisation in New Delhi
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